Najnovšie - Encyklopédie populárno-náučné - História strana 5 z 168

The 1066 Norman Bruisers conjures up the vanished world of England in the late Middle Ages and casts light on one of the strangest quirks in the nation’s history: how a bunch of European thugs became the quintessentially English gentry.In 1066 go-getting young immigrant Osbern Fitz Tezzo crossed the Channel in William the Conqueror’s army. Little did he know that it would take five years to vanquish the English, years in which the Normans suffered almost as much as the people they had set out to subdue. For the English, the Norman Conquest was an unmitigated disaster, killing thousands by the sword or starvation. But for Osbern and his compatriots, it brought territory and treasure – and a generational evolution they could never have imagined.Osbern’s descendants settled in Cheshire, which played a pivotal role in medieval England as the launch pad for Edward I’s Welsh wars, the chief recruiting ground for royal armies and Richard II’s regional powerhouse. Successive members of the Boydell family fought for monarchs and magnates, oversaw royal garrisons, travelled abroad as agents of the crown and helped to administer the laws of the land. When they weren’t strutting across the stage of northwestern England, mingling with great men and participating in great events, they engaged in feuds, embarked on illicit love affairs and exerted their influence in the small corner of the country they had made their own. By 1378, when William Boydell died from wounds sustained in combat, the nation he defended was England and the enemy he opposed dwelled just forty miles from the place where Osbern had probably grown up.

The 250th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence represents an opportunity to reconsider the United States of America's founding document. In America's First War: The Military History of the Declaration of Independence, a gathering of expert scholars boldly reinterprets the declaration, encouraging readers to remember that this foundational document was written during a war. Far from an abstract philosophical treatise on liberty, this groundbreaking collection argues that the Declaration of Independence was crafted to achieve practical military objectives, a calculated move to legitimize armed rebellion and attract foreign military support, particularly from France and Spain. Drawing on diplomatic correspondence, military records, and contemporary political writings, the book reveals how the Declaration functioned as a rallying cry to galvanize domestic support for the Revolutionary War. It also uncovers the deliberate rhetorical choices made by Thomas Jefferson and the Continental Congress to frame the colonies as a sovereign nation worthy of international recognition and military alliances. By reframing the Declaration as a wartime instrument rather than a purely ideological manifesto, this work challenges traditional narratives and opens new avenues for understanding the American Revolution. America's First War is essential reading for scholars, students, and anyone interested in the complex interplay between warfare and politics.

In the first history of the oceanic Anthropocene, Stefan Huebner explores the twentieth-century extension of human habitats into oceanic spaces. He shows how the effects of this amphibious transformation have followed a very different trajectory from human-driven change on land, in terms of both socioeconomic development and environmental degradation. The extension of the human habitat through artificial islands such as seabed-fixed and floating structures has granted vertical access to Earth's different spatial layers, from the fossil fuels beneath the seabed to outer space. Huebner asks why this transformation occurred; how it has been shaped by political, economic, and environmental factors; and how it has altered marine environments. A deeper understanding of Earth's amphibious transformation compels us to reconsider the history and future of climate change, sea level rise, energy transitions, human–marine species interactions, globalization, and even urbanization, including floating cities. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

The B-29 Superfortress was a vital and iconic strategic bomber of the Second World War. It was designed with a range and warlord capability that made it viable for operation in the vast regions of Asia Pacific. This bomber played a key part in the defeat and unconditional surrender of Japan, principally using fire-bombing techniques. The complex role and effectiveness of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are reviewed critically. The work has 21st century connection in the 80th anniversary of VJ Day. The United States Navy, US ground forces and the B-29 wings were brought together to fight, in the author's words, 'he most massive air war the world had ever seen'. Technical aspects including bomb-load and range - vital for the vast Asia Pacific, are set out for all readers, service, academic and lay. The narrative takes readers through the history of the major air wars commencing with Europe, where the US Army Air Corps was allied with Britain's RAF. After victory in Europe in 1944 the combined war effort shifted to the war with Japan on land, sea, and in the air. The great sea battles follow with the Coral Sea, Midway and combined operations in the Guadalcanal Campiagn of 1942 seen as a turning-point. The Philippine Sea carrier battle brought about the end of the Japanese navy's carrier strength and the following battle of Leyte was seen as a ‘grudge-match' for Pearl Harbor'. The invasion of the Marianas secured air bases that at last brought B-29 operations within striking range of Japan. Preparation of crews for combat takes readers into sharing combat experience with crews and personal flying experience is graphic - problems affecting sighting targets, bomb-aiming, escape from attack, danger and fear of loss. In this campaign the B-29 played the most important combat role of its career. It was an aircraft unique in the history of aviation.

Formed a mere two months after the Bolshevik Revolution, the Cheka, the Soviet Security and Intelligence Agency, was formed to gather intelligence and promote revolution abroad. This organisation underwent a series of transformations over the following decades and achieved some remarkable successes against Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the USA, and the United Kingdom. Throughout the 1930s, the Soviets pursued their ambition of gaining influence in Eastern Europe. It was a plan that inevitably brought them into conflict with Nazi Germany, against which they began setting up clandestine organisations that were meant to become operational in the event of war. The USA had been of peripheral interest to the Soviets up until the prospect of war loomed ever closer. Then, when it became known that Britain and the USA were exploring the potential of atomic weapons, espionage in the western hemisphere became of paramount importance. Despite their being allies against the Nazis, the Soviets significantly increased spying activity against both nations in an effort to develop their own atomic bomb programme. After the end of the Second World War, a new and ominous threat hung over the world in the guise of the Cold War when the Soviets brought into play their British spy network which became known as the Cambridge Five. These were agents who had been radicalised and recruited during the 1930s and then embedded within the British security services. In Stalin’s Top Spies the author explores five of the Soviet Union’s greatest spies: Leopold Trepper (and the Red Orchestra), Ursula Kuczynski (the Atomic Spy), Richard Sorge (a Soviet agent in Tokyo), Kim Philby (the Cambridge Spy), and Rudolf Abel (a Soviet intelligence officer who was arrested in the USA on charges of espionage in 1957). The book not only reveals their successes and failures, but assessing the extent to which they influenced world events from the Second World War through to the early years of the Cold War. In so doing, it also highlights the failures of the target nations to recognise the threat posed to them and exposes their lack of success in dealing with it.

In 1941, a year after France formally surrendered, Charles de Gaulle, the leader of the Free French forces, appointed Jean Moulin to coordinate the various resistance movements that had sprung up all over France. His mission was to unify the diverse and often fragmented resistance groups into a more cohesive organization. He successfully brought together various resistance factions under the umbrella of the National Council of the Resistance (CNR), which was a crucial step toward creating a united front against both the Nazis and the Vichy French regime. Since the start of the Occupation, the Germans realized that resistance to their rule was inevitable. With this in mind, they went about establishing total control of France, not only through the German Army forces stationed in the country, but using the entire Nazi security apparatus. From 1941 onwards, the Germans began to encounter frequent and increasingly more damaging acts of resistance, which required not only intelligence and counter-intelligence work, but the launching of raids and small operations. The intensity of partisan attacks began to increase even more in 1942. This level of resistance grew even greater in 1943. By then, the partisans were selectively challenging local German garrisons and collaborator forces in the French countryside. By the beginning of 1944, the Resistance, or Maquis as it was also known, became bolder, even establishing so-called Free-French republics in various regions of the country. Employing primary source documents from several archives, author Antonio Munoz has produced a one-volume study that fully covers the partisan and anti-partisan struggle in France from 1940 through to 1944. Hitler’s War Against the French Resistance, 1940-1944 is a valuable reference source for those who wish to study the guerrilla and anti-guerrilla struggle during the Second World War.

In Disputing Disaster, Perry Anderson picks from the highly charged historiography on the First World War one leading historian from each of the major powers that survived the conflagration: Fritz Fischer, celebrated champion of German war guilt; Pierre Renouvin, a dis­abled serviceman and preeminent authority on the conflict in France; Luigi Albertini, the Italian newspaper tycoon who, unique among scholars of the Great War, played a part in pitching his country into it; Paul W. Schroeder, the American expert on the system of European interstate relations and its breakdown in 1914; Keith Wilson, the one radical deviant from a patriotic consensus about Britain's role in the outbreak of the fighting; and, from Australia (summoned into the war as a dominion), Christopher Clark, acclaimed author of The Sleepwalkers. Disputing Disaster offers a compelling analysis of the major compet­ing versions of the genesis of the Great War; fresh light on the politi­cal background of its leading historians; and a novel synthesis of the determining pressures that brought the conflict to pass.

This is the history of Britain’s armaments industry during the Second World War. It begins with the rearmament before the war and shows how a shadow industry was prepared, in response to German aggression. See how industry was organised and programmed, before learning how armaments were researched, designed and developed. The narrative then looks at how enlistment was controlled, how skilled workers were deployed and how manufacturing was diluted, to allow tens of thousands of unemployed men and women to play their part. The story continues with an explanation of the importance of the coal and oil industries, followed by the development of the metal industries. It then looks at the huge amounts of imports and merchant shipping required, as well as the American Lend Lease programme. See how factories equipped the Royal Air Force, so it could fight the Battle of Britain, and reequipped the British Army following the disaster at Dunkirk. Also learn how the shipyards worked around the clock on warships and merchant ships, so the Royal Navy could defend the nation and protect the supply convoys. See how the lessons learnt on the battlefield helped modify early factory designs into practical ones. Learn how the war changed relations between the government, the employers, the unions, and the workforce. See how issues could cause widespread industrial unrest, as the cost of living rose and the rules became stricter. Also learn how the desire to improve production improved health and safety at work, welfare arrangements and developed management and human resources. We also see how the Luftwaffe attempt to cripple British industry with its aerial Blitz. The story ends with a nation being pushed to its limits for a second time in thirty years, before suddenly demobilising, again leaving the British people wondering what the future would hold for them.

In developing plans for the Allied invasion of France, from the very beginning, SHAEF planners considered the vital need to secure deepwater ports to bring in all the supplies needed to support an army of hundreds of thousands of troops. Cherbourg, at the tip of the Cotentin Peninsula, was the closest to the landing beaches chosen for Operation ‘Overlord’. The planners therefore decided to land forces at the base on the peninsula, in order to enable the rapid capture of Cherbourg, and also to widen the front of the landing. The First US Army was tasked to capture it as quickly as possible. In the early hours of June 6, paratroopers from the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions landed inland from Utah Beach to capture the beach exits, and secure the crossings over the Douve River at Carentan. On June 10, the 101st Airborne Division captured Carentan, thus liaising with the Omaha beachhead and ensuring the Allies a continuous front. This success allowed VII Corps to advance westward to isolate the Cotentin Peninsula. On June 18, the 9th Infantry Division reached the west coast of the peninsula, and within 24 hours, the 4th, 9th, and 79th Infantry Divisions advanced northward. Within two days, they were within striking distance of Cherbourg, but the German commander, Generalleutnant Karl-Wilhelm von Schlieben, rejected a summons to surrender and began demolitions of the port. The VII Corps launched a general assault on June 22. Resistance was initially strong, but the Americans gradually drove the German defenders from their bunkers and pillboxes. Allied warships and cruisers bombarded the defences on the 25th, and the 79th Division captured Fort du Roule, which dominated Cherbourg and its defences, on the 26th. General von Schlieben surrendered the same day, and the port and arsenal capitulated on the 27th. Fregattenkapitän Witt, the port commander, escaped by boat to the Fort de l’Ouest, a bastion on the breakwater, and took command of the small forces holding this fort and the Fort du Centre. After two days of artillery hammering and several bombing raids, the two strongholds surrendered on June 29. The Battle of Cherbourg was over. In the battle for the Cotentin and Cherbourg, VII Corps had suffered over 22,000 casualties, while the Germans had lost 39,000 men taken prisoner, in addition to an unknown number killed. The early capture of Cherbourg was a major defeat for the Germans. In their plan to deny the Allies access to French ports, the German high command had anticipated that Cherbourg could hold out for several weeks (as Brest was soon to do). The capitulation of the Festung came much earlier than expected, and Hitler’s inner circle considered the fortress’s commander, General von Schlieben, a very poor commander. However, his engineers had carried out intensive demolition of the port, which was so thoroughly destroyed and mined that it was only put back into very limited use by mid-August. This, then, is the story of the capture of Cherbourg, the first Allied victory in Normandy, told through more than a hundred ‘Then and Now’ comparison photographs, which really bring history to life. You will thus be able to walk precisely in the footsteps of the heroes of this great moment in history.

The Mosquito was the most successful battle-winning multi-role combat aircraft of the Second World War. It was introduced by the de Havilland Aircraft Company as an unarmed, un-interceptable, long range, high speed, high altitude medium bomber. An unarmed bomber without protective armament was a concept that ran directly contrary to the tactical doctrines of both the Royal Air Force and the US Army Air Force. Notwithstanding, it was developed to carry out almost unlimited roles including ground-attack dive-bomber, anti-shipping strike aircraft, day, and night fighter, 'Pathfinder’ marking targets for a main heavy bomber force, and long-range reconnaissance aircraft. There seemed to be nothing it could not be adapted to do with unmatched success. Its most important role was as a deadly long-range, low level precision ground attack fighter-bomber, ideal for 'special duties' operations. The book examines the crucial role of designers and engineers from drawing board to production and company support. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin engines it could carry the same bombload as four-engine heavy bombers but at much greater speeds and at altitudes from low-level to ultra-high. It was the combination of this performance with its prodigious range capability that made it a truly strategic weapon in air warfare, striking precision targets in the heart of Nazi-Germany and sapping morale. The text is of full of detailed and dramatic attacks from the aircrew point of view. “It makes me furious when I see the Mosquito. I run green and yellow with envy.”Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring.

Ever since Reichsmarschall Hermann Goering, Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe and deputy Führer, crunched a cyanide capsule between his teeth and died the night before his execution for war crimes, speculation about his death has never ended. The question of how Goering obtained the poison led to an official investigation, several reviews, intense debates, many books and articles, and several dramatizations and documentaries. Yet none have been able to provide a compelling and convincing explanation. The answer to this riddle was in fact unfathomable without the knowledge of key pieces of information contained within statements made by two military personnel who, late in their lives, revealed that they had been present during that history-defining moment of 1945. Combined with all the documentation previously obtained by investigators, and recently published records, the actual sequence of events of that fateful day can at last be understood. Just six US and British officers knew what took place on the day Goering received the cyanide capsule that allowed him to escape being hanged by his enemies and, in the eyes of his legions of followers, die a martyr – the very end the Allies were so desperate to avoid. Of those six Allied officers, four died taking their secrets with them. The revelations of the remaining two only came to light during casual meetings. The disclosures made by the first of the two former wartime officers, during an interview he gave in 2003, are as astounding as they are unequivocal – yet it seems they have never been fully scrutinised until now. Goering’s Suicide: ‘They Will Not Hang Me!’ chronicles events that occurred in Nuremberg during the crucial eight-week period in the autumn of 1945 that immediately preceded the start of the International Military Tribunal in which twenty-four leaders of Nazi Germany who had planned, carried out, or otherwise participated in the Holocaust and other war crimes, were tried. The author, Paul Hooley, believed the information received about Goering’s suicide was too important for it not to be shared with the world. Now, the truth has been revealed.

Discover a thrilling true story of treachery, deceit, hope and despair. From the moment Mary, Queen of Scots set foot on English soil in 1568 until her execution at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587, she was the prisoner of her cousin, Elizabeth I. Unlike Mary’s time on the Scottish throne, the dramatic events of these years – almost half her life – took place while she was a captive. But while trouble was perpetually simmering beyond her prison walls, within them Mary was constantly plotting. Only towards the end did she lose faith in returning to her homeland as rightful ruler. This is the story of Mary’s tumultuous later years, told through the many atmospheric locations where she was confined. Drawing on the latest research, including a treasure trove of recently decoded letters, Exile sheds fascinating new light on her captivity and the charged political climate of the period. Reading like a 16th-century thriller, this account of treachery, deceit, hope and despair is a penetrating and enthralling psychological portrait of one of history’s endlessly fascinating queens.

During the 1920s, Germany defied the Treaty of Versailles by rebuilding its military and pioneering new forms of mechanised warfare. This detailed study traces the development of the German tank during this crucial time, from experimental prototypes to Adolf Hitler’s first mass-produced tank, the Panzer I – a tank that would help German forces train for and execute their Blitzkrieg operations. The performance of this small, lightly armed tank was limited, nevertheless it participated in the opening campaigns of the war, including the invasions of Poland, Denmark and Norway, the Low Countries, France and Russia. It provided a valuable training platform for Panzer crews and helped pave for the way for the subsequent heavier and more powerful German models. Covering the design innovations of the various models and variants, as well as their combat history and performance, this is a fascinating look at the Panzer I during pre-war training and later operational service. Part of the Images of War series, combining a treasure trove of rare and unpublished photographs with well-researched text, this is a valuable source for students of the war, modellers and anyone fascinated by military technology, armoured warfare and the evolution of the tank.

A history of European immigrants in Texas and how they redefined racial identity. While the creation of a Black-White racial binary was foundational to most of the United States, nineteenth-century Texas developed a unique tripartite system that acknowledged the role of individuals of Mexican ancestry in a region that was Spanish, Mexican, and an independent nation before becoming a US (and briefly Confederate) state. Yet this framework was fraught, struggling to accommodate new arrivals from beyond North America, in particular the Irish, Germans, and Czechs. Texan Crucible tells the story of these immigrants and how they became Anglo. Marian Barber reveals the ways language, religion, alcohol use, and attitudes toward slavery distinguished these newcomers to Texas from those arriving from the eastern United States and how they nevertheless created thriving, influential communities. Their status was shaped by events inside and far beyond Texas, including an 1887 prohibition fight, the Civil War, and two world wars that encouraged them to erase their distinctiveness. As segregation was formally outlawed and civil rights activism grew, understandings of race shifted, cementing these groups’ status as Anglo. Texan Crucible recovers the histories of German, Irish, and Czech immigrants and unveils the social construction of racial difference underpinning Texan identity.

From the birth of the first computer in the Middle East to the dizzying highs and lows of the 1990s dotcom era, this sweeping narrative traces the evolution of Israel into one of the world s most vibrant technology hubs--second only to Silicon Valley. With rich insights and untold stories, it explores the bold innovations, visionary minds, and unexpected turns that shaped a nation at the forefront of global innovation. The Network Effect is essential reading for entrepreneurs, investors, and anyone fascinated by the intersection of technology, business, history, and human ingenuity. Driven by a passion for history and a deep understanding of Israel s innovation ecosystem, Meir Valman wrote this book to reveal the untold story behind Israel s rise as a global high-tech powerhouse. With a background in history from the University of Cambridge and extensive experience in finance and Israel s tech sector, he offers a unique perspective on the factors that shaped the country s technological development.

'A well-written and rewarding memoir that provides keen insight into the mindset of a patriotic young man willing to make sacrifices for his country.' — Robert ForczykIn this masterful two-volume account, Prussian solider and officer Karl Knoblauch draws on his wartime diaries to detail his fascinating military career during the Second World War. In this first volume, he recounts the years leading up to the outbreak of the war through to 1944. In 1938, just before the outbreak of war, a 17-year-old Karl Knoblauch volunteered for military service and began his career as an infantryman before joining the air force as aircrew. Later, Knoblauch was seriously wounded in a Russian fighter attack over Wjazma and had to leave his squadron. After recuperating, he returned to the frontline as an officer in the ‘Hermann Göring’ Division, where this first volume comes to a close. Knoblauch describes his experiences in sober and stark detail, creating a gripping and comprehensive first-hand account of his time fighting for the Wehrmacht. Supplemented by a number of photographs and appendices, this is a must-read for any military history enthusiast.

For the first time, journalists who shared details about Nazi crimes from the International Military Tribunal, better known as the Nuremberg Trial, have their own story told. As World War II in Europe drew to a close in 1945, the Allies prepared to hold Nazi leaders accountable for crimes against humanity and selected Nuremberg as the site for the trial. The U.S. military took the lead in refurbishing a courtroom and making accommodations for 325 journalists and 23 defendants plus Allied judges, prosecutors, translators and administrative staff. Because publicity was a main consideration, the latest innovations and technology were incorporated into the courtroom to enhance news coverage of the trial. Press passes were in demand worldwide for courtroom seats. A press pool was selected to witness the executions in which 10 criminals were hung on Oct. 16, 1946. Famous war correspondents and young journalists who later became household names were headquartered in a castle, explored bombed ruins and faced dangers as a lingering spirit of Nazism seethed within the city. The lengthy trial became an excruciating endurance test for journalists by the time it ended (far longer than expected) on Oct. 1, 1946, setting a precedent for coverage of subsequent justice at Nuremberg. The author, a long-time journalist and former foreign correspondent, provides an insider’s look at how the news was gathered and conveyed. The book is based on extensive research and insights gathered from Nuremberg, including at the location where the journalists were housed and at the courtroom itself.

The story of Scotland's male witches and wizards always promised to be a convulted one, and the tale indeed turns out to be a strange tree with many twisted branches. The nation has several venerable magical figures who compete in stature with the legendary Merlin. Michael Scot, Thomas of Erceldoune and Coinneach Odhar were, respectively scholar, poet and seer, but they still command enormous presence in the national imagination. The forgotten men who got caught up in the national witch hunts were as unfortunate as the far greater number if women persecuted. Among those prosecuted were healers like Andro Man, who practiced his skills for decades before being examined. For every sincere practitioner or innocent, there were many more frauds and distorted characters caught up in the supernatural net. Major Weir left a dark stain on Edinburgh for a century after his death and Gregor Willox Macgregor is still remembered in the north with a mixture of doubtful contempt and fear.

Menachem Kipnis (1878–1942) was one of the early twentieth-century's greatest Jewish eastern European ethnomusicologists, folklorists, and photographers. He had a weekly column in the Warsaw Yiddish newspaper Haynt, retelling humorous old folk stories about the fictional Polish town of Chelm, populated exclusively by fools. At the same time, his photographs of Jewish life in eastern Europe regularly appeared in the Forverts (Forward), the most popular Yiddish daily newspaper in the United States. Now, for the first time, Kipnis's stories and photographs are published together in a single book. Menachem Kipnis brings these photographs and stories into dialogue with one another, bridging the Jewish communities in Poland and in America during the interwar period. This dialogue, between image and text, between European metropolis and American metropolis, captures a key historical moment when American Jews sought to imagine the lives of their coreligionists in the "Old Country" and eastern European urban Jews sought to distinguish themselves from their Jewish compatriots who were still living in the shtetl. Including an introductory essay, annotations, and an epilogue by Sheila E. Jelen, Menachem Kipnis suggests new ways of understanding both visual and literary depictions of eastern European Jewish culture between the two world wars.